Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- Problems facing the Gold Standard - National Reserve Currency

2.6     Problems facing the Gold Standard

Problems facing the Gold Standard

When the gold standard was applied throughout the whole world, it did not experience any problems. However, problems arose when the superpowers opted to fight their enemies using money, by introducing alongside the gold standard the non exchangeable (compulsory) paper money standard. For this reason, Western colonial powers established the International Monetary Fund, and the USA introduced the U.S. dollar as the basis for the new monetary standard. Hence, any State operating the gold standard would be faced by certain problems which need study in order to solve and overcome them. These problems are as follows:

1. The concentration of gold in countries whose level of production, their ability to compete in foreign trade and the professionalism of their scientists, experts and industrialists have all increased. This would lead to the flow of gold into these countries either as a price for commodities or as salaries for the workforce i.e. experts, scientists and industrialists. Therefore, most of the existing reserves of gold world-wide would accumulate in these countries, causing an imbalance in the distribution of gold among various countries. This would also lead to countries restricting the transfer of gold for fear of losing their reserves, thus bringing their foreign trade to a grinding halt.
2. Gold could flow into some countries due to the balance of trade being in their favor. However, these countries could prevent this gold from influencing the local market and from causing an increase in the level of prices by flooding the market with a large number of bonds. This could be sufficient to lead to a withdrawal of money equal to the gold they had received, thus such countries end up retaining the gold and preventing it from returning to the country of origin, which would suffer from the use of the gold standard as a result.
3. The widespread use of the gold standard has always been linked to the concept of international specialization in various areas of production and to international free trade. However, a powerful tendency toward the protection of industry and agriculture in these countries has emerged, which has led to the introduction of tariff barriers, thus erecting an obstacle in the face of goods exported to these countries and making it difficult for the transferring of gold out of these countries. Therefore, the trade of the country that operates the gold standard would suffer, for if her goods did not reach other countries’ markets at the normal price, she would either be forced to reduce the level of her commodities’ prices further in order to overcome the tariffs and quotas or not export her goods in the first instance, and in both cases, her trade would suffer.

These are the main difficulties which the gold standard could face if operated by a single country or several countries. The way to overcome such difficulties would be to adopt a policy of self-sufficiency and to make workers’ salaries performance-related rather than estimated in relation to the price of the commodities they produce or manufacture, or their standard of living. Also no consideration should be paid to shares and government bonds as commodities owned by individuals, and there should be no over-reliance on exports as a source of developing wealth. A country should rather aim at generating her wealth within her own boundaries without having to export her goods and services abroad, which would help her do away with trade barriers imposed by other countries. Once a country adopts such a policy, she would have nothing to fear from the gold standard, and instead would reap all its benefits, avoid all its disadvantages and not suffer any setback from it at all. On the contrary, it would be in her interest. So it is inevitable for her to follow the gold and silver standard to the exclusion of all other standards.

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- Benefits of the Gold Standard - National Reserve Currency

2.5     Benefits of the Gold Standard

Benefits of the Gold Standard

If the benefits of the gold standard were to be compared with the fiat (paper currency) standard and other standards, it would be inevitable that the monetary gold standard would become a global standard. These benefits would not allow any other monetary standard to become established. Throughout the history of money and up until the First World War, the whole world operated the gold and silver standards. No other standards were known to the world until then. However, when the colonialists mastered the various styles of economic and financial imperialism, and began using currency as a means of colonialism, they established different monetary standards. They considered bank deposits and non exchangeable banknotes, which had no reserve of gold or silver, as money, along with gold and silver. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the benefits of the gold standard, the most important of which are:

1. The gold basis necessitates the free circulation, import and export of gold, which leads to monetary, financial and economic stability. In this case, transactions of exchange would only originate from foreign payments to meet the cost of commodities and the salaries of workers.
2. The gold standard ensures the stability of exchange rates between various countries, and the stability of the exchange rates in turn leads to a boom in international trade, for traders would no longer fear the expansion of foreign trade, and the uncertainty of exchange rate instability.
3. If the gold standard was employed, central banks and governments would not be able to expand the issuance of banknotes, for as long as the banknote remains non exchangeable with gold at a fixed rate, the authorities concerned would fear that if they exceeded limits in issuing banknotes, the demand for gold would increase and they would not be able to meet this demand. Therefore, they would always tend to maintain a reasonable ratio between what they issue in terms of banknotes and gold reserves.
4. Each of the currencies used, all over the world would be fixed by a specific amount of gold. As a result, the movements of commodities, money and people from one country to another would be easier, and the problems of hard currency would disappear.
5. The gold standard would help each country preserve her gold, for there would be no gold smuggling from one country to another, and countries would not need to exercise control in order to protect their wealth, for gold would only leave the country for legitimate reasons i.e. as prices for commodities or salaries for workers.

These are some of the benefits of the gold standard, and they all make it necessary that the world operates this standard. Therefore, it comes as no surprise to learn that the whole world up until the First World War was indeed operating the gold standard. At the start of the First World War, the most prevailing monetary system in the world was that based on the gold standard, and money in circulation at the time was in fact gold coins and paper money readily exchangeable for their equivalent value in gold. The silver standard also operated alongside the gold standard. The implementation of this standard led to the establishment of the most productive economic relations.

However, when the First World War was declared in 1914, the warring countries undertook certain measures which led to disorder in the gold standard. Some countries cancelled the liability of exchanging their currencies to gold. Other countries imposed harsh restrictions on the export of gold, while others put obstacles in the face of importing it. This continued until 1971 when America declared that she had put an end to the operation of the gold standard and that she intended to sever the link between gold and the dollar. Since then, gold has had no relation with the currency, but rather has become like any other commodity. America’s intention was to establish the dollar as the monetary basis world-wide so that it could control and dominate the international money market.

Therefore, the gold standard no longer operated throughout the world and this disturbed the monetary system and the rates of exchange fluctuated. Since then, obstacles and difficulties in the transfer of currencies, goods and services have appeared.

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- The Gold Standard - National Reserve Currency

2.4     The Gold Standard

Gold Standard

A State would be following the gold standard if it used gold currency in its foreign and domestic transactions, or if it used domestically a paper money which could be exchanged for gold. This paper money could either be for domestic use and for making payments abroad or solely for making payments abroad, on condition that this exchange for has a fixed price. In other words, it would still be following the gold standard on condition that the paper unit can be exchanged for a specific quantity of gold, at a fixed price and vice-versa. It would be natural in this case for the value of the currency in the country to remain solidly linked to the value of gold. Therefore, if the value of gold rose in comparison with other commodities, the value of the currency in comparison with other commodities would rise as well. If the value of goods decreased in comparison with commodities, the value of the currency would also decrease.

Money based on gold has a special characteristic, reflected in the fact that the monetary unit is linked to gold in a specific amount. In other words it would, by law, consist of a specific weight of gold. The import and export of gold would be freely conducted, and people would be able to freely acquire currencies, gold bullion, or gold dust and be able to export them.

Since gold in this instance would move freely between various countries, every person has the choice of either buying foreign currency, or transferring (i.e. settling in) gold; a person would however opt for the cheaper method. Therefore, since gold and the cost of its transfer would cost more than the price of the foreign currencies in the market, it would then be sensible to use foreign currency instead. However, if the exchange rate exceed that figure, it would be best to take the gold out of circulation and settle with it.

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- Issuing of Currency - National Reserve Currency

2.3     Issuing of Currency

Issuing Currency

The price is the society’s estimate of the value of goods and the wage is the society’s estimate of the value of services. Money is the medium by which this estimate is expressed. It is the medium which enables us to measure various goods and services and refer them to one common basis, thus facilitating the process of making a comparison between various goods and between various services by referring them to one general unit which serves as the general standard. Prices are paid for goods and wages are paid for workers on the basis of this unit.

The value of money is estimated by its purchasing power i.e. by how much a person could acquire with it in terms of goods or services. Therefore, the medium by which the society estimates the value of goods and services must have a purchasing power in order to qualify as money i.e. a power with which any person could acquire goods and services. This medium must originally have an intrinsic power, or be dependent on an intrinsic power i.e. it should itself have a value recognized by the public, in order to be considered as money. However, in reality the issuing of money differs among the various countries of the world. Some countries have made their money an intrinsic power or dependent on an intrinsic power, while others have made their money a conventional money (inconvertible) i.e. they have agreed upon a medium to be considered as money and they gave it a buying power.

When issuing money, countries may either adopt the gold and silver standard, or the non-exchangeable paper money. As for the countries which operate the gold and silver standard, they follow two methods of issuing: the metallic money method, i.e. either the single/dual metallic standard or the paper money method. The metallic method is where gold and silver coins are issued by minting pieces of gold or silver to represent various values, but based on one monetary unit to which all the various values of money and goods would be referred. Each piece would be coined to be based on this unit, and these pieces would be circulated as the country’s currency. The paper method used in the countries which operate the gold and silver standard means simply that a country would use paper money i.e. paper currency that can be exchanged to gold and silver upon demand. Two methods can be used in operating such a standard; the first method is when a country makes the paper money represent a certain amount of gold and silver deposited in a specific place as money or bullion. In this case, this amount would have a metallic value equal to the nominal value which the paper money holds and the notes can be exchanged on demand. This is known as intrinsic paper money. As for the second way, this would be used when a country decides that the paper money should represent a document in which the undersigned, promises to pay the bearer on demand a certain amount of money. This paper money would not in this case represent the amount of gold and silver which has a metallic value equal to the issued nominal value; the issuing house, be it a bank or a government treasury, would however maintain a lesser amount of gold and silver than its nominal value, for example, three-quarters of the value, two thirds, one third, a quarter or any other percentage of the nominal value. For instance, a bank or the State’s treasury would issue paper money worth 500 million Dinars and maintain in its safes 200 million Dinars worth of gold and silver only. This type of paper money is known as fiduciary paper money. The metallic reserves are known as gold reserves or gold cover. In any case, a country which issues money under these conditions would in fact be operating the gold standard.

This demonstrates that the media which possess an intrinsic power i.e. gold and silver, are in themselves money and are the basis upon which money is based. However each country chooses her own specific method, shape, weight, mint, etc. so that she can distinguish it from other money. A country may also agree on an intrinsic paper currency based on gold and silver either circulating in the country and abroad, or used only in foreign exchanges. A country could also agree upon fiduciary paper money, backed by gold for a certain amount of its nominal value i.e. it would have a gold reserve less than its value in gold. These papers would have a specific shape and print so that they become the currency of the issuing country and so that they are distinguished from other currencies. As for the countries that operate a non-exchangeable paper money standard, they issue bills which are not exchangeable to gold or silver or any precious metal with a fixed rate. Therefore, the institution which issues these bills is not liable to exchange these bank notes for gold at a specific price on demand. Gold in such countries is treated just like any other commodity whose price fluctuates from time to time according to supply and demand. These bank notes are not backed by a metallic reserve, nor are they exchangeable to metallic money. They only hold a legal value and do not possess an intrinsic power, nor do they depend on an intrinsic power. They merely represent a unit that has been agreed upon as a means of circulation, and it is the law that gives it the power to become a means of circulation, with which a person may acquire goods and services. Its power is derived from the power of the State who issues it and who uses it as her currency.

Since money is issued in the above mentioned ways, any country could therefore agree upon something which expresses the society’s estimate of goods and services, as long as this thing has purchasing power with which a person could acquire goods and services from that country. Therefore, any country could issue a currency that has a fixed and a distinguished quality, which expresses the society’s estimation of the value of goods and services i.e. a money with which any person could acquire goods and services in the issuing country, according to the value given to that money. It is the issuing country which forces other countries to recognize her currency so that these countries could acquire from her goods and services.

A country would not need to depend on the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, a central bank or any other institution. The strength of the unit in obtaining goods and services would be sufficient to turn it into a currency either by itself, such as gold and silver, or by its dependence on gold and silver e.g. intrinsic paper money which represents its nominal value in gold and silver, or through having a certain amount of gold and silver held in reserve, as is the case with fiduciary paper money. This may also be due to it being a legal tender with enforced acceptability which allows a person to acquire with it goods and services, such as the non-exchangeable paper money i.e. the banknote. Countries in the past used to deal in gold and silver, whereby each country would agree upon a specific fixed character for her gold and silver in order to distinguish her money from other countries’ money. Each country would then issue alongside the gold and silver paper money with a fixed distinguished character. Then the country would agree upon the issuing of paper money while maintaining gold and silver reserves. There were therefore three types of money in the world: metallic money made of gold and silver, intrinsic paper money and non-exchangeable banknotes.

Since the end of the Second World War and until 1971, the whole world used to operate two main types of money, the metallic and the paper money with its three types. However, since 1971 the whole world began operating exclusively the non-exchangeable paper money standard i.e. the legal tender with enforced acceptability, until the U.S. president Nixon declared the Bretton Woods Declaration null and void, thus severing the link between the dollar and gold.

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- Paper Money - National Reserve Currency

2.2.2    Paper Money

Paper Money

Paper money consists of three types, these are:

   1. Intrinsic paper money: These are bank notes representing a certain amount of gold and silver, either coined or in bullion, deposited in a specific place, which have a metallic value equal to the nominal value held by these notes, and can be exchanged on request. In such a case, the circulation in real terms is like that of metallic money, with the paper money circulating as a substitute for metallic money.

  2. Fiduciary paper money: These are “convertible” notes where the undersigned promises to pay the bearer on demand a certain sum of metallic money. The value of these fiduciary notes when put in circulation, would be subject to the trust, people at large, have in the undersigned, and on the ability of the undersigned to fulfill the promise. If he were trustworthy and reliable then it would be easy to use this fiduciary paper money just like coins. The main type of this money is the bank notes issued by well-known banks and trusted by the public. However, the issuer of these bank notes i.e. this fiduciary paper money, be it a bank or the State’s treasury, maintains an exact amount of gold equal to the value of the bank notes, as is the case with the intrinsic paper money. It usually maintains gold reserves in its vaults equal to a certain percentage of the issued bank notes value which could amount to three quarters, two thirds, a third, or a specific percentage. Therefore, the quantity of bank notes which is backed by an exactly equal value of metallic reserves is considered intrinsic paper money, whereas the rest of the quantity which is not backed by a reserve would be considered fiduciary paper money, which derives its power of circulation from the trust which people have in the undersigned. For instance, if an issuing house, be it a bank or government treasury, would keep a metallic reserve in its vaults worth 20 million Dinars, and issues paper money worth 40 million Dinars, then the 20 million of bank notes i.e. paper money which is not backed by a metallic reserve would be considered fiduciary paper money and the twenty million Dinars worth of paper money, which is backed by a metallic reserve, equal to its value, would be considered as intrinsic paper money. Therefore, for the State that holds reserves of gold and silver exactly equal to the value of the paper money it issues, its money would be considered as intrinsic paper money and fully backed money. Whereas, for the State that holds a value of either gold or silver which is not equal to the full amount of paper money, but is only partially covered, its money would be considered as fiduciary paper money.

    3. Nonconvertible paper money: These are known as compulsory bills i.e. legal tender with enforced acceptability, and are also commonly called paper securities. They are issued by governments and established as main currencies. They cannot be exchanged to gold or silver, nor are they backed by a reserve of gold, silver or bank notes. However, they are backed by government legislation exempting the issuing house from their exchange against gold or silver.

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- 2.1 Introduction - National Reserve Currency

2.1     Introduction

“Gold is the money of kings, silver is the money of gentlemen, barter is the money of peasants – but debt is the money of slaves” - Norm Franz, Money and Wealth in the New Millennium.

On the 31st of December 2010, Gold ended the year at $1,420 an ounce: up over 30% on the year, and the 10th year in succession in which it grew in dollar terms. Since 1971, when Richard Nixon unilaterally took the world off the Bretton Woods gold standard, gold has appreciated from its then price of $35 per ounce to its current level, signaling a 3,950 percent appreciation in gold – or to be more accurate – depreciation in the US Dollar. Gold was the leading investment class in 2010, and the only one to appreciate in every year since 2000. But this paper is not about relative investment asset performance; it is about gold as currency. It is about the perpetual wasting, debasement of the world’s fiat paper based currencies and whether there is a viable alternative. With economic growth anaemic at best in the developed world and facing new bouts of currency wars, as countries try successive rounds of currency devaluation via money printing, many are now questioning whether gold can again be a cornerstone of the worlds monetary system.

The head of the World Bank, Robert Zoellick in November 2010 in a Financial Times article reignited the debate by urging world leaders to consider reintroducing a gold standard to control currency movements. He argued that the world’s largest economies needed to build a more cooperative monetary system, which he claimed would increase investor confidence and stimulate future economic growth:

“The G20 should complement this growth recovery program with a plan to build a co-operative monetary system that reflects emerging economic conditions. This new system is likely to need to involve the dollar, the euro, the yen, the pound and a Renminbi that moves towards internationalization and then an open capital account. The system should also consider employing gold as an international reference point of market expectations about inflation, deflation and future currency values. Although textbooks may view gold as the old money, markets are using gold as an alternative monetary asset today.” 

Zoellick’s comments predictably elicited a storm of protest from financial and banking interests. However, the current system remains and continues to fail. The US government’s use of Quantitative Easing (which dramatically increases money supply) has also been widely criticized. Chinese Premier Hu Jintao on the eve of his visit to the US in mid January quite aggressively asserted:  “The liquidity of the US$ should be kept at a reasonable and stable level”.

Hu Jintao also hinted at the need for a radical overhaul in the fiat monetary system when he said on the same trip:  “the current international currency system is the product of the past”.

Mr Hu was merely reiterating the fact that the world’s de facto currency (the US$) continues to depreciate rapidly and that major creditor nations such as China will not continue to bankroll US deficits. The paper based fiat system enables the US to wantonly print dollars as and when it feels fit. As the key global currency, this has dramatic effects on the world economy, with gnawing inflation and a persistent devaluation in the dollar (and indeed the other key world paper currencies).

As the immediate impacts of the financial crisis are digested, and currency devaluation emerges as perhaps the final tool to engender recovery, it is time to consider again alternatives to this unstable fiat paper regime. With the thorough discrediting of much of the worlds banking system throughout the recent crisis, there is an opportunity to re-examine the monetary pillars of western banking – including credit creation through fiat currencies that are wholly devoid of any asset backing. 

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