Chapter 2: The High cost of Production: Specie as a Waste of Production - National Reserve Currency

2.11   The High cost of Production: Specie as a Waste of Production

Gold

Some influential economists produced estimates that the resource costs of gold (mining, refining, assaying, storing and guarding) could be up to 4% of GDP. As such it is a needless misallocation of resources if token coins or fiat money can do the job of being a medium of exchange at a negligible resource cost. Before discussing the costs of the gold standard, it is important to keep in perspective the costs of the Fiat standard and more importantly the costs of the consequences of implementing the Fiat standard. One well-known consequence is the cost of bailing out the economy. A rather modest older example is given below.

Studying the resource costs of gold production in isolation is a poor proxy of total costs. Comparing the resource costs of gold against the resources costs of paper does not settle the issue. We have to look at the opportunity costs from not having the Gold Standard, in essence this means realizing the missed opportunities to the economy from the benefits that entail a stable and sound currency. So whilst the production costs of paper may be regarded as negligible compared to the costs of extracting, mining and transporting gold, it’s the total costs to society of Fiat money that must be considered, which are:

• The costs of inflation-induced misallocation of resources from a Fiat standard. In essence paper money is the key facilitator of creating inequity between the rich and poor by being the engine for inflation growth.
• The costs of political factions vying for the power of the printing press.
• The costs imposed by special-interest groups in their attempt to persuade the authorities to misuse the printing press.

Thus the isolation in which the costs of gold are compared to the costs of Fiat, are in effect analogous to saying sand is cheaper than concrete, and therefore should be used to lay the foundation of a structure. The very edifice of Capitalist markets has been crumbling before our eyes – all based on Fiat currency, so who would argue against paying for a strong foundation.

Another line from the critics of the Gold Standard is that they assume that the activities of mining gold, refining it, casting it into bars or minting it into coins, storing it and guarding it are collectively wasteful activities – which are all under the implicit assumption that with the Fiat standard such activities would cease. But that case assumes that the imposition of the paper standard will cause gold to lose its monetary value. Whereas gold continues to mined, refined, minted, stored and guarded – and still incurs a resource cost. In the case of irresponsible monetary management the resource costs of gold under the paper standard may indeed be driven higher than just the Gold Standard alone.

Finally, there are some false assumptions that lead to the high estimated costs for the resource costs of gold, namely assuming that gold supply is perfectly elastic. In truth gold supply is relatively inelastic. In an expanding economy, an increasing demand for money would lead to additional resources being devoted to gold mining. But given the inelasticity of supply, the dominant effect of the increase in the demand for gold would be a price effect rather than a quantity effect. There would be some increase in the quantity of gold supplied, but due to the price effect, this increase would be small in comparison with the increase in demand. The resource costs of extracting the additional gold would be correspondingly small.

It must be noted that advocating the Gold Standard does not necessarily mean hiving bars gold to engage in everyday commercial transactions. A Gold Standard works perfectly well as long as any paper money in circulation is equivalent to the valued quantity of gold in the economy.

 

Cost of Bank Bailouts as % of GDP

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- Growth Problem - National Reserve Currency

2.10   Growth Problem

Gold

Fiat supporters have always argued there is not enough Gold in the world to fund the global economy and international transactions.

The total amount of gold that has ever been mined has been estimated at around 165,000 tonnes. Assuming a gold price of $1,500 per ounce, the total value of all the gold ever mined would be around $6.8 trillion. This is less than the value of circulating money in the US alone, where around $1.4 trillion is in circulation and another $11 trillion exists through banking deposits.

The real problem is not that there is too little Gold but the fact there are too many dollars in the world. The US, which has the dollar as its national currency, can continually print money to meet its economic needs because international financial markets and global commodities markets are all priced in dollars.

The money stock in the world far exceeds the value of the global economy. The banking industry creates money through loans and mortgages. It is here the advocates of Fiat argue that the more money existent in an economy the more growth. In reality more money has created more inflation. The need to create perpetual economic growth has driven western economies to print ever more money creating one economic crash after the other. The case in point is not the insufficiency of gold in the world but the instability that unrestricted Fiat brings to national economies.

The proponents of Fiat money argue money plays a crucial role in the economy since sufficient amounts of money need to exist in the economy for transactions to take place. The more transactions that take place the more wealth is created. Monetarists have long argued that giving up such an economic tool handcuffs a government. With the Gold Standard new gold would need to be mined in order to increase money supply and this would impact economic growth.

Capitalist economic growth requires the economy to continually grow, which in turn needs consumers to continually spend, the availability of debt allows this on a massive scale. Pro-Fiat economists believe the ability to print money freely drives economic growth. Whilst a certain amount of money is needed for transactions to take place, in almost all cases of Fiat economies the amount of money always exceeds economic activity that creates inflation and destabilizing the economy.

The last decade saw the financial sector, which was the driving engine of Western economies stimulate economic growth. Through the creation of nearly $1,000 trillion this artificially drove a housing bubble that stimulated the other aspects of the world economy. All of this took place with a real world economy of only $50 trillion or so. The growth in the economy was false, artificial and unsustainable while the recession and its adverse impacts are all too real.

The Gold Standard would have restricted the amount of credit in the global economy and ensured a credit driven bubble never materialized. Since liquidity cannot be accessed either through printing or through interest based credit, the productive activities leading to growth are risk sensitive and sustainable. Unsustainable growth is when the growth is not able to continue without causing socio-economic problems, the potential of which is repeatedly witnessed in the interest based Fiat system.

Economic growth, unemployment and money creation all need to be separated from each other. Economic growth has become synonymous with low unemployment and manageable inflation. Economic growth in any country is more then just these factors. Economic growth can also be driven by competitive labor and consumer markets, it can be driven and supported by innovation and strong public infrastructure. These supply side factors absorb any inflation created from the demand side of the economy. Thus without the supply side of the economy, money creation in the hope of manufacturing demand will just lead to higher prices.

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- Price Instability Problem - National Reserve Currency

2.9     Price Instability Problem

Where open markets operate, the prices of goods and services are determined by changes in their respective demand and supply. Money or currency is used to denominate the prices of goods and services where the value of a currency is determined by the quantity of goods and services that can be bought with a given sum of money.

Increases or decreases in the supply of money itself may cause a general increase or decrease in the prices of goods and services irrespective of supply and demand conditions within individual markets.

Michael David Bordo argued that the adoption of the Gold Standard leads to price instability in the short term and that this inhibits economic activity. At the same time and perhaps paradoxically the Gold Standard is said by others to cause deflation. However, when investigated empirically both assertions are contestable.

Despite the predominance of Fiat currencies in the world today, the first point to make is that over the last 250 years or so, implementation of the Gold Standard has been the norm rather then the exception. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution to the start of World War I - in excess of 150 years - the classic Gold Standard was implemented in the major economies of the world.

Looking at the Britain, where the Industrial Revolution began and being the dominant world power in the eighteen and nineteenth centuries, Table 1 above presents inflation in the UK since 1750 as recently published by the Office of National Statistics [3]. In these first 50 years, inflation averaged a steady 2% per annum.

Following a deflationary period between 1801 and 1851 when inflation averaged -1.2% per year, in the next 50 years prices rose by 0.3% per year followed by growth of 0.5% per annum to 1914 when the Gold Standard was abandoned in order to finance the war effort. Average annual price inflation of about 1% over the period 1750- 1914 suggests the classic Gold Standard produced unprecedented long run low price stability.

The evidence on inflation for the UK at least is clearly at odds with the argument that the Gold Standard causes deflation. Between 1800 -1914, UK prices were almost as likely to fall as to rise, when average annual inflation was close to zero. Since this was often caused by an increased supply of goods and services and not by a shortfall of demand, the resulting deflation was benign. Prices tended to rise when many countries abandoned the Gold Standard, during the First World War. As countries aimed to restore the Gold Standard at the pre-war parity in 1925, prices were required to fall back - resulting in policy induced deflation. This expectation of prices to fall helped contribute to an environment with relatively flexible prices and nominal wages.

From 1925-1929, the falling prices and increasing output make this deflation to be the likely consequence of beneficial developments reflecting the increased ability of the economies to provide goods and services. Since WWII, there have been few episodes of deflation worldwide, with UK experiencing an average inflation of 7% since then.

Between 1999 -2005 an unwinding of inflated asset prices associated with a crisis in the Japanese banking system prompted deflation in Japan, where consumer prices fell by an average of 0.5% per year. The argument of short-term price instability solely hinges on relatively high coefficient of variation ratios over the period of the Gold Standard (as cited by Bordo). However the coefficient of variation is a highly unstable statistic when the average (mean) of a dataset is close to zero as was the case with relatively low and stable long term inflation over the period of the Gold Standard. Thus the high coefficient of variation shows spurious short-term variability over the period of the Gold standard and is an unsuitable and improper measure of statistical variation.

Far from destabilizing markets, short-term price variability around a low average in actual fact suggests markets were providing effective signals for producers and consumers to actively engage in economic activity during the period of the Gold Standard. Indeed the unprecedented increase in industrial and agricultural output and international trade during the Industrial Revolution suggests the implementation of the Gold Standard had no apparent adverse or lasting impact on the economy. This is shown by the 0.5% per annum growth in the UK’s GDP per capital between 1750 and 1850 [4] - during implementation of the Gold Standard - allowing for the increase in population and inflation. Steady though unspectacular growth implies the Gold Standard had no underlying adverse impact on economic activity. Economic activity rose ahead with inflation and population increasing ‘average’ livelihoods, in spite of the inherent disparities in income and wealth created by capitalism.

Looking at the experience of Britain, this period between 1750 and 1914 of the implementation of the Gold Standard can be contrasted with the following decades when the Gold Standard was intermittently or partially implemented.

The Gold Standard was abandoned between 1915-1925 and 1932-1945 with inflation in Britain rising by 5.4% and 3.8% respectively. 1946 to 1971 saw the partial implementation of the Gold Standard through the Bretton Woods system and inflation rose slightly above 4% per year. Since the demise of Bretton Woods the UK’s inflation has been very variable exceeding 8% per annum between 1972 and 1993 with Fiat currencies in operation.

The Gold Standard anchors a currency to a relatively fixed monetary base guaranteeing low inflation, with possible periods of low deflation. In contrast Fiat currencies have a tendency to generate inflation – often at high growth rates - even allowing for the mitigating effects of restrictive monetary and fiscal policy.

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- Supply of Gold Problem - Fear of Deflation - National Reserve Currency

2.8     Supply of Gold Problem - Fear of Deflation

Gold

It is often stated that there is insufficient gold in circulation to account for all the trade around the world. Estimates of the value of gold are in the region of 6.5 trillion dollars and the world’s GDP, as far as the real economy is concerned, is around 50-70 trillion dollars. How then could Gold currency be used in place of the Fiat currency that has replaced it?

In light of the above, it is argued that countries which transition to a Gold Standard would clearly not be able to maintain current prices and the realignment of prices would occur leading to significant levels of price deflation across all sectors of the economy. After this initial drop, then relative stabilization would occur.

At the heart of this criticism of the Gold Standard is the aversion and irrational fear of deflation. To refute this dogma, an analysis of the supposed harms of deflation will be discussed along with an alternative view of how deflation can be a positive force in the economy, not being a trigger for recession and also a positive force behind the distribution of wealth in an economy. Deflation is argued as a bigger evil than inflation for numerous reasons including the following:

• It increases the burden of debt as debts increase in real terms as money is worth more when prices are falling.
• It is suggested that people will delay purchasing goods and services in anticipation of prices falling further with an attendant fall in demand thereby leading to a vicious spiral towards recession and ultimately depression.
• It renders monetary policy ineffective as there is no incentive to borrow and therefore no way that central banks can instigate a self-sustaining recovery. Some theorists such as John Maynard Keynes called this phenomenon a liquidity trap.

In response to this charge it is clear that many products have experienced rapid sales growth during prolonged phases of deflating prices due both to technological advancements such as the growth of ecommerce, or periods where growth in output has outstripped the supply of currency. The former would cause prices to deflate in specific sectors of the economy whereas the latter would cause a general decrease in the prices of all commodities as the ratio of money to goods and services would fall and a smaller quantity of money would need to cater for a larger volume of trade and hence each unit of money would be worth more in real terms (manifested in a drop in prices).

Trade and investment is not inhibited by prices that fall as a result of increasing efficiency. The growth as a result of the industrial revolution is ample evidence of the case where entrepreneurs can effectively anticipate and predict price and cost trends and make informed decisions in the present time to ensure maximum benefit. Had this not been true, then the declining cost of communications technology would have seen many technology companies go out of business instead of an increase in growth and market presence as new market participants can now afford such products thereby increasing sales even further.

One of the reasons cited by the Keynesian school for deflation being a precursor to a recession is that while the selling price of goods and services are falling, cost prices, especially wage costs, are resistant to a corresponding fall and as such business start to increase redundancies which has an effect of lowering the overall level of demand in the economy which further exacerbates the fall in prices into a perpetual downward spiral until the government steps in to break the process and starts to exert its own demand through starting projects to compensate for the private sectors shortfall in demand.

The challenge here is to demonstrate how the costs of production can fall to enable businesses to remain competitive in such a deflationary climate and thus not suffer the ill effects described above. If businesses were able to drop their input costs and by so doing preserve their profitability, they would be relatively immune from the effects of declining prices.

Price inflexibility especially downward cost price movement can occur in areas such as labor costs where it is referred to as ‘wage stickiness’, or in other factors of production such as rent on land, due to long term leasing contracts which are hard to renegotiate. Wage stickiness can occur due to psychological factors as individuals look to the nominal rather than the real value of money. This concept is known as ‘money illusion’ as the phenomena where workers will be less inclined to accept lower pay despite the fall in prices than they will argue for their wages to rise when prices rise. If workers realized the contradiction they would be less likely to resist wage cuts especially if they saw the wider implications on their job prospects and on the wider economy.

Flexible labor markets are therefore a necessary condition to counter the negative effects of falling prices in product markets. In Islam there are various concepts such as the notion that Allah provides the sustenance and also a clearer concept towards value, in this case the value of money as defined by its purchasing power, to ensure the market does not suffer from such inflexibilities.

In contrast to this notion of measuring utility as a standalone feature of a commodity, the early Capitalist theorists (the Marginal School) adopted a concept of value called the theory of diminishing marginal utility which defined the value of a commodity as its utility at the point of consumption when satisfying the weakest point of need; this level of utility enabled the comparison of commodities for the purposes of exchange.

Money naturally became the universal good which acted as this scale for the measurement of the value of all things. The problem however was that with this ratio (called ‘price’) people started to measure the value of objects through the prism of price instead of the inherent utility of the object. Hence if the price or absolute amount of their pay is reduced, the implication being that this must be a bad thing.

The implication of this confusion of looking at value through price is clearly demonstrated in the example of the phenomena of money illusion were workers cannot see the real value of their wages. Instead workers think about their wages in nominal terms measuring their pay through a nominal construct in the form of an absolute monetary amount devoid of real value, in this case real value would be through the purchasing power of money.

Had market participants been operating in an Islamic economic environment with clarity over these concepts (in the case of value became confused by early classical economic theorists) and thus been able to see value in real terms, then the correct view of the worth of ones wage in a deflationary phase would have resulted in workers more likely to accept lower wages knowing that the purchasing power and hence value of their pay would not be affected as a result. Furthermore the constant fear of inflation associated with the Fiat system exacerbates this fear and further discourages workers to accept pay cuts.

Furthermore, a 1999 study in North America entitled “Why Wages don’t Fall During a Recession” by Truman Bewley [published by Harvard University Press], which was based on interviews with over 300 businessmen union-leaders and recruiters, found a huge disparity between the theoretical modeling of wage stickiness and actual causes.

The study cited reasons such as employers fear or lowering worker morale out of fear that lower nominal wages would lead to a lower standard of living. The study found that employers would fear an increase in staff turnover and this is very costly. The implication being that employers would rather lay off a percentage of workers as a means of reducing labor costs to counteract this effect instead of dropping wages. Clearly if the reality of money illusion was clarified, and the view towards value was understood, then the reluctance to lower wages would be minimized and so would the negative effect on morale which acts as an impediment to lowering wages.

In conclusion to this point, it can be said that wages and other input prices would need to fall to help the market readjust to new equilibriums necessary to avoid the downward spiral towards contraction of the market towards recession, high unemployment and ultimately depression. However if the underlying investment were not robust enough to withstand such shocks then it would be better for the business entity to fail instead of being bailed out by the taxpayer.

Finally as far as people delaying making purchases, this is an argument which is blown out of proportion to justify the Quantitative Easing (QE) programs that target the creation of inflation to counteract the deflation described above. If wages are more flexible as shown in the preceding analysis, then the incentive to delay a purchase when wages will fall, potentially before the drop in the price of the good or service in question negates this false dogma.

It must be noted that advocating a bimetallic standard that’s gold and silver providing the monetary based. The bimetallic standard will augment the money supply, as it would not rely upon gold alone.

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- Emergency Spending - National Reserve Currency

2.7.4    Emergency Spending

Emergency Spending

Critics of a Gold based currency often cite that emergency spending cannot be undertaken the way it can with the Fiat standard. This relates to matters such as the funding necessary during times of war which was a key factor behind President Nixon ending the last Gold Standard, albeit a diluted form of it in 1971. This was due to the cost of the Vietnam War necessitating spending beyond the means available to the US Treasury department.

In response to this charge, the following observations and alternative approaches can be discussed. There may be some initial benefit to being able to flex the amount of money and spend it for emergency projects, however the medium to long term effects of this are inflation and a transfer of wealth from the masses to the elites. The additional money that is injected into the system does not initially effect the general level of prices and the early acquirers of this ‘new money’ can reap the benefits of this money before the negative effects by way of reducing the purchasing power of money (inflation) reaches the wider society. The initial acquirers are usually large corporate interest groups that can sell goods such as arms to governments and then convert the proceeds into assets other than cash ahead of the inflation that will reach the society. The people that deal in cash and loans are usually the masses and they are the ones that are hit by the decline in the purchasing power of money once inflation sets in. As a result, it is a hidden tax levied upon the majority of people that deal more with cash and bank deposits. It is no surprise why governments like the Fiat model along with the special interest groups they represent - not to mention the banks that charge interest on money that was not earned and was created out of nothing.

Secondly, the need for such funding is often as a result of the capitalist states instigating wars as an economic strategy to increase growth and economic prosperity for their economies. Hence the slogan: “war is good for the economy”. Can it then be said that emergency spending such as this would be a significant factor if this utilitarian view were abolished?

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- Problems facing the Gold Standard - National Reserve Currency

2.6     Problems facing the Gold Standard

Problems facing the Gold Standard

When the gold standard was applied throughout the whole world, it did not experience any problems. However, problems arose when the superpowers opted to fight their enemies using money, by introducing alongside the gold standard the non exchangeable (compulsory) paper money standard. For this reason, Western colonial powers established the International Monetary Fund, and the USA introduced the U.S. dollar as the basis for the new monetary standard. Hence, any State operating the gold standard would be faced by certain problems which need study in order to solve and overcome them. These problems are as follows:

1. The concentration of gold in countries whose level of production, their ability to compete in foreign trade and the professionalism of their scientists, experts and industrialists have all increased. This would lead to the flow of gold into these countries either as a price for commodities or as salaries for the workforce i.e. experts, scientists and industrialists. Therefore, most of the existing reserves of gold world-wide would accumulate in these countries, causing an imbalance in the distribution of gold among various countries. This would also lead to countries restricting the transfer of gold for fear of losing their reserves, thus bringing their foreign trade to a grinding halt.
2. Gold could flow into some countries due to the balance of trade being in their favor. However, these countries could prevent this gold from influencing the local market and from causing an increase in the level of prices by flooding the market with a large number of bonds. This could be sufficient to lead to a withdrawal of money equal to the gold they had received, thus such countries end up retaining the gold and preventing it from returning to the country of origin, which would suffer from the use of the gold standard as a result.
3. The widespread use of the gold standard has always been linked to the concept of international specialization in various areas of production and to international free trade. However, a powerful tendency toward the protection of industry and agriculture in these countries has emerged, which has led to the introduction of tariff barriers, thus erecting an obstacle in the face of goods exported to these countries and making it difficult for the transferring of gold out of these countries. Therefore, the trade of the country that operates the gold standard would suffer, for if her goods did not reach other countries’ markets at the normal price, she would either be forced to reduce the level of her commodities’ prices further in order to overcome the tariffs and quotas or not export her goods in the first instance, and in both cases, her trade would suffer.

These are the main difficulties which the gold standard could face if operated by a single country or several countries. The way to overcome such difficulties would be to adopt a policy of self-sufficiency and to make workers’ salaries performance-related rather than estimated in relation to the price of the commodities they produce or manufacture, or their standard of living. Also no consideration should be paid to shares and government bonds as commodities owned by individuals, and there should be no over-reliance on exports as a source of developing wealth. A country should rather aim at generating her wealth within her own boundaries without having to export her goods and services abroad, which would help her do away with trade barriers imposed by other countries. Once a country adopts such a policy, she would have nothing to fear from the gold standard, and instead would reap all its benefits, avoid all its disadvantages and not suffer any setback from it at all. On the contrary, it would be in her interest. So it is inevitable for her to follow the gold and silver standard to the exclusion of all other standards.

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- Benefits of the Gold Standard - National Reserve Currency

2.5     Benefits of the Gold Standard

Benefits of the Gold Standard

If the benefits of the gold standard were to be compared with the fiat (paper currency) standard and other standards, it would be inevitable that the monetary gold standard would become a global standard. These benefits would not allow any other monetary standard to become established. Throughout the history of money and up until the First World War, the whole world operated the gold and silver standards. No other standards were known to the world until then. However, when the colonialists mastered the various styles of economic and financial imperialism, and began using currency as a means of colonialism, they established different monetary standards. They considered bank deposits and non exchangeable banknotes, which had no reserve of gold or silver, as money, along with gold and silver. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the benefits of the gold standard, the most important of which are:

1. The gold basis necessitates the free circulation, import and export of gold, which leads to monetary, financial and economic stability. In this case, transactions of exchange would only originate from foreign payments to meet the cost of commodities and the salaries of workers.
2. The gold standard ensures the stability of exchange rates between various countries, and the stability of the exchange rates in turn leads to a boom in international trade, for traders would no longer fear the expansion of foreign trade, and the uncertainty of exchange rate instability.
3. If the gold standard was employed, central banks and governments would not be able to expand the issuance of banknotes, for as long as the banknote remains non exchangeable with gold at a fixed rate, the authorities concerned would fear that if they exceeded limits in issuing banknotes, the demand for gold would increase and they would not be able to meet this demand. Therefore, they would always tend to maintain a reasonable ratio between what they issue in terms of banknotes and gold reserves.
4. Each of the currencies used, all over the world would be fixed by a specific amount of gold. As a result, the movements of commodities, money and people from one country to another would be easier, and the problems of hard currency would disappear.
5. The gold standard would help each country preserve her gold, for there would be no gold smuggling from one country to another, and countries would not need to exercise control in order to protect their wealth, for gold would only leave the country for legitimate reasons i.e. as prices for commodities or salaries for workers.

These are some of the benefits of the gold standard, and they all make it necessary that the world operates this standard. Therefore, it comes as no surprise to learn that the whole world up until the First World War was indeed operating the gold standard. At the start of the First World War, the most prevailing monetary system in the world was that based on the gold standard, and money in circulation at the time was in fact gold coins and paper money readily exchangeable for their equivalent value in gold. The silver standard also operated alongside the gold standard. The implementation of this standard led to the establishment of the most productive economic relations.

However, when the First World War was declared in 1914, the warring countries undertook certain measures which led to disorder in the gold standard. Some countries cancelled the liability of exchanging their currencies to gold. Other countries imposed harsh restrictions on the export of gold, while others put obstacles in the face of importing it. This continued until 1971 when America declared that she had put an end to the operation of the gold standard and that she intended to sever the link between gold and the dollar. Since then, gold has had no relation with the currency, but rather has become like any other commodity. America’s intention was to establish the dollar as the monetary basis world-wide so that it could control and dominate the international money market.

Therefore, the gold standard no longer operated throughout the world and this disturbed the monetary system and the rates of exchange fluctuated. Since then, obstacles and difficulties in the transfer of currencies, goods and services have appeared.

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- The Gold Standard - National Reserve Currency

2.4     The Gold Standard

Gold Standard

A State would be following the gold standard if it used gold currency in its foreign and domestic transactions, or if it used domestically a paper money which could be exchanged for gold. This paper money could either be for domestic use and for making payments abroad or solely for making payments abroad, on condition that this exchange for has a fixed price. In other words, it would still be following the gold standard on condition that the paper unit can be exchanged for a specific quantity of gold, at a fixed price and vice-versa. It would be natural in this case for the value of the currency in the country to remain solidly linked to the value of gold. Therefore, if the value of gold rose in comparison with other commodities, the value of the currency in comparison with other commodities would rise as well. If the value of goods decreased in comparison with commodities, the value of the currency would also decrease.

Money based on gold has a special characteristic, reflected in the fact that the monetary unit is linked to gold in a specific amount. In other words it would, by law, consist of a specific weight of gold. The import and export of gold would be freely conducted, and people would be able to freely acquire currencies, gold bullion, or gold dust and be able to export them.

Since gold in this instance would move freely between various countries, every person has the choice of either buying foreign currency, or transferring (i.e. settling in) gold; a person would however opt for the cheaper method. Therefore, since gold and the cost of its transfer would cost more than the price of the foreign currencies in the market, it would then be sensible to use foreign currency instead. However, if the exchange rate exceed that figure, it would be best to take the gold out of circulation and settle with it.

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- Issuing of Currency - National Reserve Currency

2.3     Issuing of Currency

Issuing Currency

The price is the society’s estimate of the value of goods and the wage is the society’s estimate of the value of services. Money is the medium by which this estimate is expressed. It is the medium which enables us to measure various goods and services and refer them to one common basis, thus facilitating the process of making a comparison between various goods and between various services by referring them to one general unit which serves as the general standard. Prices are paid for goods and wages are paid for workers on the basis of this unit.

The value of money is estimated by its purchasing power i.e. by how much a person could acquire with it in terms of goods or services. Therefore, the medium by which the society estimates the value of goods and services must have a purchasing power in order to qualify as money i.e. a power with which any person could acquire goods and services. This medium must originally have an intrinsic power, or be dependent on an intrinsic power i.e. it should itself have a value recognized by the public, in order to be considered as money. However, in reality the issuing of money differs among the various countries of the world. Some countries have made their money an intrinsic power or dependent on an intrinsic power, while others have made their money a conventional money (inconvertible) i.e. they have agreed upon a medium to be considered as money and they gave it a buying power.

When issuing money, countries may either adopt the gold and silver standard, or the non-exchangeable paper money. As for the countries which operate the gold and silver standard, they follow two methods of issuing: the metallic money method, i.e. either the single/dual metallic standard or the paper money method. The metallic method is where gold and silver coins are issued by minting pieces of gold or silver to represent various values, but based on one monetary unit to which all the various values of money and goods would be referred. Each piece would be coined to be based on this unit, and these pieces would be circulated as the country’s currency. The paper method used in the countries which operate the gold and silver standard means simply that a country would use paper money i.e. paper currency that can be exchanged to gold and silver upon demand. Two methods can be used in operating such a standard; the first method is when a country makes the paper money represent a certain amount of gold and silver deposited in a specific place as money or bullion. In this case, this amount would have a metallic value equal to the nominal value which the paper money holds and the notes can be exchanged on demand. This is known as intrinsic paper money. As for the second way, this would be used when a country decides that the paper money should represent a document in which the undersigned, promises to pay the bearer on demand a certain amount of money. This paper money would not in this case represent the amount of gold and silver which has a metallic value equal to the issued nominal value; the issuing house, be it a bank or a government treasury, would however maintain a lesser amount of gold and silver than its nominal value, for example, three-quarters of the value, two thirds, one third, a quarter or any other percentage of the nominal value. For instance, a bank or the State’s treasury would issue paper money worth 500 million Dinars and maintain in its safes 200 million Dinars worth of gold and silver only. This type of paper money is known as fiduciary paper money. The metallic reserves are known as gold reserves or gold cover. In any case, a country which issues money under these conditions would in fact be operating the gold standard.

This demonstrates that the media which possess an intrinsic power i.e. gold and silver, are in themselves money and are the basis upon which money is based. However each country chooses her own specific method, shape, weight, mint, etc. so that she can distinguish it from other money. A country may also agree on an intrinsic paper currency based on gold and silver either circulating in the country and abroad, or used only in foreign exchanges. A country could also agree upon fiduciary paper money, backed by gold for a certain amount of its nominal value i.e. it would have a gold reserve less than its value in gold. These papers would have a specific shape and print so that they become the currency of the issuing country and so that they are distinguished from other currencies. As for the countries that operate a non-exchangeable paper money standard, they issue bills which are not exchangeable to gold or silver or any precious metal with a fixed rate. Therefore, the institution which issues these bills is not liable to exchange these bank notes for gold at a specific price on demand. Gold in such countries is treated just like any other commodity whose price fluctuates from time to time according to supply and demand. These bank notes are not backed by a metallic reserve, nor are they exchangeable to metallic money. They only hold a legal value and do not possess an intrinsic power, nor do they depend on an intrinsic power. They merely represent a unit that has been agreed upon as a means of circulation, and it is the law that gives it the power to become a means of circulation, with which a person may acquire goods and services. Its power is derived from the power of the State who issues it and who uses it as her currency.

Since money is issued in the above mentioned ways, any country could therefore agree upon something which expresses the society’s estimate of goods and services, as long as this thing has purchasing power with which a person could acquire goods and services from that country. Therefore, any country could issue a currency that has a fixed and a distinguished quality, which expresses the society’s estimation of the value of goods and services i.e. a money with which any person could acquire goods and services in the issuing country, according to the value given to that money. It is the issuing country which forces other countries to recognize her currency so that these countries could acquire from her goods and services.

A country would not need to depend on the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, a central bank or any other institution. The strength of the unit in obtaining goods and services would be sufficient to turn it into a currency either by itself, such as gold and silver, or by its dependence on gold and silver e.g. intrinsic paper money which represents its nominal value in gold and silver, or through having a certain amount of gold and silver held in reserve, as is the case with fiduciary paper money. This may also be due to it being a legal tender with enforced acceptability which allows a person to acquire with it goods and services, such as the non-exchangeable paper money i.e. the banknote. Countries in the past used to deal in gold and silver, whereby each country would agree upon a specific fixed character for her gold and silver in order to distinguish her money from other countries’ money. Each country would then issue alongside the gold and silver paper money with a fixed distinguished character. Then the country would agree upon the issuing of paper money while maintaining gold and silver reserves. There were therefore three types of money in the world: metallic money made of gold and silver, intrinsic paper money and non-exchangeable banknotes.

Since the end of the Second World War and until 1971, the whole world used to operate two main types of money, the metallic and the paper money with its three types. However, since 1971 the whole world began operating exclusively the non-exchangeable paper money standard i.e. the legal tender with enforced acceptability, until the U.S. president Nixon declared the Bretton Woods Declaration null and void, thus severing the link between the dollar and gold.

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- Paper Money - National Reserve Currency

2.2.2    Paper Money

Paper Money

Paper money consists of three types, these are:

   1. Intrinsic paper money: These are bank notes representing a certain amount of gold and silver, either coined or in bullion, deposited in a specific place, which have a metallic value equal to the nominal value held by these notes, and can be exchanged on request. In such a case, the circulation in real terms is like that of metallic money, with the paper money circulating as a substitute for metallic money.

  2. Fiduciary paper money: These are “convertible” notes where the undersigned promises to pay the bearer on demand a certain sum of metallic money. The value of these fiduciary notes when put in circulation, would be subject to the trust, people at large, have in the undersigned, and on the ability of the undersigned to fulfill the promise. If he were trustworthy and reliable then it would be easy to use this fiduciary paper money just like coins. The main type of this money is the bank notes issued by well-known banks and trusted by the public. However, the issuer of these bank notes i.e. this fiduciary paper money, be it a bank or the State’s treasury, maintains an exact amount of gold equal to the value of the bank notes, as is the case with the intrinsic paper money. It usually maintains gold reserves in its vaults equal to a certain percentage of the issued bank notes value which could amount to three quarters, two thirds, a third, or a specific percentage. Therefore, the quantity of bank notes which is backed by an exactly equal value of metallic reserves is considered intrinsic paper money, whereas the rest of the quantity which is not backed by a reserve would be considered fiduciary paper money, which derives its power of circulation from the trust which people have in the undersigned. For instance, if an issuing house, be it a bank or government treasury, would keep a metallic reserve in its vaults worth 20 million Dinars, and issues paper money worth 40 million Dinars, then the 20 million of bank notes i.e. paper money which is not backed by a metallic reserve would be considered fiduciary paper money and the twenty million Dinars worth of paper money, which is backed by a metallic reserve, equal to its value, would be considered as intrinsic paper money. Therefore, for the State that holds reserves of gold and silver exactly equal to the value of the paper money it issues, its money would be considered as intrinsic paper money and fully backed money. Whereas, for the State that holds a value of either gold or silver which is not equal to the full amount of paper money, but is only partially covered, its money would be considered as fiduciary paper money.

    3. Nonconvertible paper money: These are known as compulsory bills i.e. legal tender with enforced acceptability, and are also commonly called paper securities. They are issued by governments and established as main currencies. They cannot be exchanged to gold or silver, nor are they backed by a reserve of gold, silver or bank notes. However, they are backed by government legislation exempting the issuing house from their exchange against gold or silver.

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Chapter 2: Findings and Analysis- 2.1 Introduction - National Reserve Currency

2.1     Introduction

“Gold is the money of kings, silver is the money of gentlemen, barter is the money of peasants – but debt is the money of slaves” - Norm Franz, Money and Wealth in the New Millennium.

On the 31st of December 2010, Gold ended the year at $1,420 an ounce: up over 30% on the year, and the 10th year in succession in which it grew in dollar terms. Since 1971, when Richard Nixon unilaterally took the world off the Bretton Woods gold standard, gold has appreciated from its then price of $35 per ounce to its current level, signaling a 3,950 percent appreciation in gold – or to be more accurate – depreciation in the US Dollar. Gold was the leading investment class in 2010, and the only one to appreciate in every year since 2000. But this paper is not about relative investment asset performance; it is about gold as currency. It is about the perpetual wasting, debasement of the world’s fiat paper based currencies and whether there is a viable alternative. With economic growth anaemic at best in the developed world and facing new bouts of currency wars, as countries try successive rounds of currency devaluation via money printing, many are now questioning whether gold can again be a cornerstone of the worlds monetary system.

The head of the World Bank, Robert Zoellick in November 2010 in a Financial Times article reignited the debate by urging world leaders to consider reintroducing a gold standard to control currency movements. He argued that the world’s largest economies needed to build a more cooperative monetary system, which he claimed would increase investor confidence and stimulate future economic growth:

“The G20 should complement this growth recovery program with a plan to build a co-operative monetary system that reflects emerging economic conditions. This new system is likely to need to involve the dollar, the euro, the yen, the pound and a Renminbi that moves towards internationalization and then an open capital account. The system should also consider employing gold as an international reference point of market expectations about inflation, deflation and future currency values. Although textbooks may view gold as the old money, markets are using gold as an alternative monetary asset today.” 

Zoellick’s comments predictably elicited a storm of protest from financial and banking interests. However, the current system remains and continues to fail. The US government’s use of Quantitative Easing (which dramatically increases money supply) has also been widely criticized. Chinese Premier Hu Jintao on the eve of his visit to the US in mid January quite aggressively asserted:  “The liquidity of the US$ should be kept at a reasonable and stable level”.

Hu Jintao also hinted at the need for a radical overhaul in the fiat monetary system when he said on the same trip:  “the current international currency system is the product of the past”.

Mr Hu was merely reiterating the fact that the world’s de facto currency (the US$) continues to depreciate rapidly and that major creditor nations such as China will not continue to bankroll US deficits. The paper based fiat system enables the US to wantonly print dollars as and when it feels fit. As the key global currency, this has dramatic effects on the world economy, with gnawing inflation and a persistent devaluation in the dollar (and indeed the other key world paper currencies).

As the immediate impacts of the financial crisis are digested, and currency devaluation emerges as perhaps the final tool to engender recovery, it is time to consider again alternatives to this unstable fiat paper regime. With the thorough discrediting of much of the worlds banking system throughout the recent crisis, there is an opportunity to re-examine the monetary pillars of western banking – including credit creation through fiat currencies that are wholly devoid of any asset backing. 

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